A ESCRITA ORIGINAL
O proto-sinaítico (também conhecido como sinaítico, proto-cananeu quando encontrado em Canaã, o alfabeto semítico do norte, ou alfabético primitivo) é considerado o traço mais antigo da escrita alfabética e o ancestral comum de ambos: a antiga escrita árabe do sul e o alfabeto fenício, que levaram a muitos alfabetos modernos, incluindo o alfabeto grego. De acordo com a teoria comum, os cananeus ou Hiksos (Hicsos) que falavam uma língua semítica reaproveitaram os hieróglifos egípcios para construir uma escrita diferente. A escrita é atestada em um pequeno corpus de inscrições encontrado em Serabit el-Khadim na Península do Sinai, Egito, datando da Idade do Bronze Média (2100–1500 aC).
Os vestígios mais antigos do alfabeto foram encontrados em uma rocha repleta de graffiti perto de uma estrada árida em Wadi el-Hol (o Vale Terrível) que corta o deserto entre Abidos e Tebas no Alto Egito (fig. acima).
Os descobridores dessas inscrições simples e ainda não decifradas foram John e Deborah Darnell, egiptólogos de Yale. Quando encontraram as inscrições de Wadi el-Hol em 1993, reconheceram imediatamente certas formas de escrita proto-sinaítica e proto-cananita relacionadas com a escrita alfabética mais antiga da Península do Sinai e mais ao norte, entrando em território cananeu, na Síria-Palestina, que datava de 1600 a.C. em diante.
Mas essas inscrições em território egípcio poderiam ser datadas, examinando materiais relacionados a elas, cerca de duzentos e cinquenta anos antes.
Nas inscrições rupestres, lá estava o alef, a cabeça de um boi; o sinal ondulado que significa “água” nos hieróglifos, talvez já adaptado do egípcio n (nt e nwy, água) para o semítico m (de mayim, água); o sinal encaracolado que significa “casa” e que em egípcio se lê p-r, mas nas formas semíticas ocidentais acabou dando beth em hebraico, bait em árabe e beta em grego.
ANATOLIA
The English-language name Anatolia derives from the Greek Ἀνατολή (Anatolḗ) meaning "the East" and designating (from a Greek point of view) eastern regions in general. The Greek word refers to the direction where the sun rises, coming from ἀνατέλλω anatello '(Ι) rise up,' comparable to terms in other languages such as "levant" from Latin levo 'to rise,' "orient" from Latin orior 'to arise, to originate,' Hebrew מִזְרָח mizraḥ 'east' from זָרַח zaraḥ 'to rise, to shine,' Aramaic מִדְנָח midnaḥ from דְּנַח denaḥ 'to rise, to shine.'[19][20]
The use of Anatolian designations has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies situated along the eastern coasts of the Aegean Sea, but also encompassing eastern regions in general. Such use of Anatolian designations was employed during the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian (284–305), who created the Diocese of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern Diocese, but completely unrelated to the regions of Asia Minor. In their widest territorial scope, Anatolian designations were employed during the reign of Roman Emperor Constantine I (306–337), who created the Praetorian prefecture of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern Prefecture, encompassing all eastern regions of the Late Roman Empire and spanning from Thrace to Egypt.
Only after the loss of other eastern regions during the 7th century and the reduction of Byzantine eastern domains to Asia Minor, that region became the only remaining part of the Byzantine East, and thus commonly referred to (in Greek) as the Eastern part of the Empire. At the same time, the Anatolic Theme (Ἀνατολικὸν θέμα / "the Eastern theme") was created, as a province (theme) covering the western and central parts of Turkey's present-day Central Anatolia Region, centered around Iconium, but ruled from the city of Amorium.
The Latinized form "Anatolia," with its -ia ending, is probably a Medieval Latin innovation.[20] The modern Turkish form Anadolu derives directly from the Greek name Aνατολή (Anatolḗ). The Russian male name Anatoly, the French Anatole and plain Anatol, all stemming from saints Anatolius of Laodicea (d. 283) and Anatolius of Constantinople (d. 458; the first Patriarch of Constantinople), share the same linguistic origin.
The oldest known name for any region within Anatolia is related to its central area, known as the "Land of Hatti" – a designation that was initially used for the land of ancient Hattians, but later became the most common name for the entire territory under the rule of ancient Hittites.[23]
The first recorded name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula, though not particularly popular at the time, was Ἀσία (Asía),[24] perhaps from an Akkadian expression for the "sunrise" or possibly echoing the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia.[citation needed] The Romans used it as the name of their province, comprising the west of the peninsula plus the nearby Aegean Islands. As the name "Asia" broadened its scope to apply to the vaster region east of the Mediterranean, some Greeks in Late Antiquity came to use the name Asia Minor (Μικρὰ Ἀσία, Mikrà Asía), meaning "Lesser Asia" to refer to present-day Anatolia, whereas the administration of the Empire preferred the description Ἀνατολή (Anatolḗ "the East").
The endonym Ῥωμανία (Rōmanía "the land of the Romans, i.e. the Eastern Roman Empire") was understood as another name for the province by the invading Seljuq Turks, who founded a Sultanate of Rûm in 1077. Thus (land of the) Rûm became another name for Anatolia. By the 12th century Europeans had started referring to Anatolia as Turchia.[25] During the era of the Ottoman Empire, mapmakers outside the Empire referred to the mountainous plateau in eastern Anatolia as Armenia. Other contemporary sources called the same area Kurdistan.[26] Geographers have variously used the terms East Anatolian Plateau and Armenian Plateau to refer to the region, although the territory encompassed by each term largely overlaps with the other. According to archaeologist Lori Khatchadourian, this difference in terminology "primarily result[s] from the shifting political fortunes and cultural trajectories of the region since the nineteenth century."[27]
Turkey's First Geography Congress in 1941 created two geographical regions of Turkey to the east of the Gulf of Iskenderun-Black Sea line, the Eastern Anatolia Region and the Southeastern Anatolia Region,[28] the former largely corresponding to the western part of the Armenian Highlands, the latter to the northern part of the Mesopotamian plain. According to Richard Hovannisian, this changing of toponyms was "necessary to obscure all evidence" of the Armenian presence as part of the policy of Armenian genocide denial embarked upon by the newly established Turkish government and what Hovannisian calls its "foreign collaborators."
BITHYNIA
Bithynia was an ancient region of Anatolia which existed from 294 to 74 BC, with Nicomedia and Nicaea serving as its capitals. It bordered Mysia to the southwest, Paphlagonia to the northeast, and Phrygia to the southeast, and it was an independent kingdom from 297 BC to 74 BC, asserting its independence under Bas of Bithynia and Zipoites I of Bithynia after the breakup of Alexander the Great's empire. Nicomedes IV of Bithynia was unable to maintain his independence from Mithridates VI of Pontus, and, in 74 BC, he bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic in his will. In 74 BC, Bithynia was merged into Bithynia and Pontus.
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